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Pepto-Bismol is band-name an over-the-counter medication used to treat various digestive problems.

**What chemical element gives this medicine, and the generic variants, its characteristic pink color and is partially responsible for the name?**

Lacquer work is a traditional East Asian art form that involves applying multiple layers of lacquer onto an object, such as a wooden box or bowl, to create a durable and glossy finish.

**For a red color, artists would use powdered form of this ore, the primary ore of mercury.**

X-rays were discovered in 1895 by German mechanical engineer and physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen. Since their discovery, x-rays have been used in a variety of applications in science, medicine, and beyond!

**Below are five (5) scientific discoveries & applications, four (4) of which were made using x-rays! Of the five listed, which one was *NOT* made using x-rays?**

The names of periodic elements can come from various sources, such as mythological entities, minerals, places or regions, elemental properties, and scientists. Scientists who have an element named after them typically already passed away at the time of naming; as of 2023, there are only two exceptions.

**What is the first element named after a scientist *still living* at the time?**

**Non-stick pans have revolutionized cooking, but have you ever considered the chemicals responsible for their slippery surface? Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), a group of synthetic chemicals developed in the 1950s, are the key ingredients that make non-stick pans and other products so effective. Unfortunately, their chemical stability also means that these compounds can persist in the environment for years and pose a serious threat to human health.**

Initially developed for Teflon production, PFAS quickly found their way into countless consumer and industrial products, including food packaging, firefighting foam, resistant coatings, and personal care products, among others. The multiple carbon-fluorine (C-F) bonds present in PFAS give them their non-stick properties. C-F bonds are one of the strongest single bonds in chemistry, making these molecules very stable and preventing PFAS from reacting (or “sticking”) to anything. However, that high stability also prevents PFAS from breaking down once released into the world.

The widespread use of PFAS, and their high stability, means they are everywhere and have only accumulated over time. They've led to significant contamination of drinking water supplies, especially near military bases and industrial sites. Since they don’t break down, PFAS also accumulate in the bodies of animals and humans over time. Research showed PFAS are associated with numerous health risks, including developmental and reproductive toxicity, liver and kidney damage, and immune system suppression, and have been linked to cancer! Given all this, they are considered a significant environmental and public health concern.

Thankfully, research into this problem has led to increased regulation and phased-out production of some PFAS chemicals. There are also efforts underway to reduce the use and address contamination issues of PFAS. However, PFAS will continue to pose a scientific challenge and an environmental and health risk for many, many years to come.

**Today, we are highlighting a molecule that is well-known in the field of biochemistry - Biotin, also called Vitamin B7 or Vitamin H.**

Biotin was discovered by Hungarian biochemist Paul György in the late 1920s, when he was investigating "egg-white injury" at Case Western Reserve University. He found a molecule in eggs that seemed to be essential for normal metabolic processes and for healthy “hair and skin” (“haar und haut” in German), which is why he initially named it Vitamin H.

Later, researchers discovered that Vitamin H was identical to other molecules that had been isolated from food, leading to the adoption of alternative names such as biotin (from "biotos" or "life" in Greek) or Vitamin B7, due to its similarity to other B vitamins.

While biotin is often marketed as a dietary supplement that can promote healthy hair, skin, and nails, there is limited scientific evidence to support these claims in healthy individuals, except for those with biotin deficiencies. Relating to deficiencies, it was found that excessive consumption of egg whites can lead to biotin deficiency – the “egg-white injury” phenomena. Egg-whites have high levels of avidin, a protein that binds strongly to biotin and prevents biotin absorption in the body – depriving the body of an essential vitamin.

Interestingly, the biotin-avidin bond has become a useful tool in scientific research. By chemically attaching biotin to proteins, nucleic acids, or other molecules (called biotinylating), researchers can use avidin to selectively "stick" to the biotinylated material, making separation and purification easier. This method can also be used to track movement and activity of biotinylated molecules *in vitro* and *in vivo*, which facilitates research and drug discovery.

**Today, let’s highlight a molecule that can cause us a great deal of pain, and historically plagued royalty and the wealthy – Uric Acid!**

Uric acid is a waste product that is produced by the body's metabolism of purine, a compound found in many foods. Purine is broken down by the body into uric acid, which is then processed by the kidneys and eliminated from the body in urine. Normally, the body can regulate uric acid levels and keep them within a healthy range. However, if uric acid levels become too high, it can lead to the formation of crystals in joints and tissues, causing a painful condition known as gout. Deposits of sodium urate and saturated uric acid in the bl00d can also form kidney stones, another painful and possibly dangerous condition.

Purine, the contributor to high uric acid in the body, is found in many foods. Rich, indulgent foods like beef, pork, lamb, poultry, and seafood, as well as organ meats, game meats, vegetables like mushrooms and asparagus, and legumes like lentils and beans are all sources of purine. In the past, these foods were associated with lavish diets, leading to the associated disease gout gaining the nickname "disease of kings“. Gout was also known way back in ancient times, as ancient Egyptians and Greeks wrote about gout and its treatment.

Despite its regal and ancient roots, gout is becoming increasingly common in the general population due to changes in lifestyle and diet. However, we now have a better understanding of uric acid as the cause. Moreover, we understand certain factors can increase uric acid levels, such as diet, alcohol consumption, and certain medications, while others can decrease levels, such as hydration and some medications used to treat gout. Likewise, we know uric acid is not always harmful, as it can also act as an antioxidant and a natural defense against radiation.

While I hope no one develops gout, or other painful conditions, now you know the chemistry behind the pain!

**Today, let’s talk about the discovery of saccharin, also known by the brand name Sweet’N Low.**

Constantin Fahlberg, a Russian chemist, is credited with discovering saccharin, the first artificial sweetener, in 1879. He was working in the laboratory of Ira Remsen, a professor of chemistry at Johns Hopkins University, when he made the discovery by accident!

Fahlberg had been working in the laboratory all day and then went out to dinner without washing his hands. While eating some bread, he noticed that it was sweet! He soon realized the taste must have come from a substance in the lab that was transferred from his hands to the bread. He rushed back to the laboratory and tasted everything he had been working with until he found the sweet-tasting compound on his hands, which turned out to be saccharin.

After discovering saccharin, Fahlberg collaborated with Remsen to study the compound and patented it as a sweetener in 1884. Its popularity skyrocketed during World War I when sugar shortages required people to look for alternative sweeteners. Since then, saccharin has been widely used as a sugar substitute in various foods and beverages. Moreover, several other artificial sweeteners, such as aspartame and sucralose, have been discovered since saccharin. Still, the accidental discovery and then success of saccharin makes for an interesting tale!

On a safety note, while in this case it worked out, it is usually good practice to WASH YOUR HANDS after working all day in a chemistry lab.

**Today, let us highlight a molecule “glowing” with interest - Firefly Luciferin!**

Firefly luciferin is a small, glowing molecule made up of two fused rings, benzothiazole and thiazole. When combined with the enzyme luciferase, firefly luciferin emits a stunning yellow-green light with a wavelength of approximately 560 nanometers. This reaction is incredibly efficient, with almost all the energy being converted into light.

In 1957, researchers B. Bitler and W. D. McElroy at Johns Hopkins University isolated the first pure firefly luciferin sample, using tens of thousands of Japanese fireflies (Luciola cruciata) for only 9 mgs! Later, in 1963, the same team synthesized firefly luciferin and published its structure (DOI: 10.1021/ja00886a019).

Since then, researchers have not only identified firefly luciferin in other bioluminescent organisms but have created synthetic luciferins with diverse colors of light emission and enhanced stability. Likewise, potential applications of firefly luciferin in biotechnology have grown, ranging from its use as a reporter molecule to track gene expression and protein activity to its application in medical diagnostics and imaging.

So next time you see a firefly's glow, take a moment to appreciate the intriguing biochemistry behind it!

**Marie and Pierre Curie's discovery of Radium in 1898 opened a world of possibilities for scientific research and practical applications. But one of the most curious and unexpected uses of this radioactive element was in cosmetics.**

In the early 20th century, between the 1910s and 1930s, radium-infused products were marketed to enhance beauty and improve skin tone, with promises of a "radiant" and "glowing" complexion. One of the most popular products was a face cream called Tho-Radia, produced by a French company, which contained both radium and thorium, another radioactive element.

Despite the claims made by manufacturers, radium makeup was not actually beneficial for the skin and could be quite dangerous. Radioactive materials can damage cells and tissues, leading to cancer and other health problems. In fact, many women who used radium makeup later developed skin damage, rashes, and even cancer.

Eventually, the dangers of radium became more widely known, and the use of radium in cosmetics was banned in many countries. Today, the use of radioactive materials in consumer products is strictly prohibited.